什么是Phonemic Awareness、Phonological awareness，与phonics的关系

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这是发在儿教的一篇旧贴。学习phonics，必须先了解一些概念，比如Phonemic Awareness ，Phonological awareness，这些术语相信大家都听说过。这里是一份美国阅读专家组报告（The national reading panel report -------Practical advice for teachers）中的论述，特翻译了一下，跟各位家长分享。最后，还会放几个视频让大家看看到底怎么做。

说明一下，本人非英语专业毕业，也不从事跟英语有关的工作，翻译错误或表达不当的地方，敬请指正。


Phonemic Awareness 音素意识

Some Definitions and Distinctions
一些定义和区别

Phonemic awareness is the ability to hear and manipulate the individual sounds within words.(The sounds within words are called phonemes ,so awareness of these sounds is phonemic awareness.) Spoken words are composed of sounds .For instance,the word cat has three sounds or phonemes: /c/ /a/ /t/ (conventional linguistic notation separates individual sounds or phonemes with slash marks).The word bike also has three phonemes: /b/ /I/ /k/; phonemic awareness is of awareness of sounds ,not letters. The word bike has four letters, but we hear only three phonemes when the word is spoken. For most adults, dividing words like cat or bike into constituent sounds is easy, but for young children the task can be formidable: Words seem to “explode out” as one big sound---cat--rather than as collections of smaller sounds.

Phonemic awareness 音素意识是一种能听出和处理单词中每一单个音的能力（单词中的每一个音称作phoneme音素，所以，对这些音的意识就是音素意识）。口头语言是由音组成的，例如：单词cat 里有三个音或音素/c/ /a/ /t/ （约定的语言学记号法 用斜杠将单个音或音素分开。单词bike 也是有三个音素/b/ /I/ /k/。 音素意识是一种针对音的认知，而不是字母。Bike 这个词有四个字母，但是说出这个单词的时候我们只听到三个音素。对大多数成年人来说，把象cat 或bike这样的单词分解出音的构成是容易的，但对幼儿来讲，这样的任务可以是艰难的：单词好象是作为一个整音（big sound） 直接冲出-cat- 而不是由更小单位的音集合起来发出。


Young children vary greatly in the ability to hear the individual sounds within words, and this variation led some scientists to hypothesize that phonemic awareness might be an essential early reading skill (Stanovich, 1986).The question was whether children with a well-developed ability to hear the sounds within words would be better equipped to learn how these sounds match the letters. English is an “alphabetic language,” meaning that the letters in the written language refer to or correspond to the sounds in the spoken language. A child who cannot perceive the separable sounds within words is at a disadvantage when it is time to match these sounds with letters while learning to read.

幼儿的识听单词中单个音的能力（下面写为辨音能力）个体差异较大，而这些差异使一些科学家猜测，音素意识可能是关键的早期阅读技能。问题是，是否是有着良好辨音能力的孩子有着更好的预备 去学习音和字母对应的知识。英语是字母语言，意味着书面语言中的字母指的是或相当于口头语言的音。不能感知识别单词中那些可以分割出的单音的孩子，在学习阅读过程中，将音和字母对应时，会处于一个不利的情况。


Phonemic awareness is not the same as phonics. Phonics refers to instruction in how letters and sounds correspond to each other and how these sound-letter correspondences can be used to decode or pronounce words in text. Decoding means the analysis of the letters in a word to determine its pronunciation; to translate from one form of message to another,such as from printed text to pronunciation.Phonemic awareness is not about how sounds and letters match or how to sound out letters to form words; it is only about hearing and thinking about or manipulating the individual sounds within words.

Phonemic awareness和phonics是不一样的概念。Phonics是指在字母与音之间怎么相互对应、以及这些音-字母的对应关系怎样被用来对书面文字进行解码或发音方面的一种训练。  decoding是指通过分析单词中的字母来判断发音，把一种形式的信息翻译为另一种形式的信息，就象从印刷文本到读出发音这种的。Phonemic awareness音素意识不是关于音--字母对应关系或如何读出字母来组成单词的，只是关于听出、思考、处理单词中的每一个音

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Many parents and teachers know about the teaching of phonics, but phonemic awareness instruction is a newer idea. Without phonemic awareness, phonics is harder to learn. In other words, phonemic awareness is something that should be taught before phonics--- at least early in the phonics sequence---so children receive maximum benefit from their phonics instruction. Some phonics programs include phonemic awareness instruction and some do not, so it is important to understand the distinction.It also is useful to distinguish phonemic awareness from another related term, phonological awareness .Phonological awareness is actually a broader concept, and phonemic awareness is part of this larger idea. Phonological awareness refers to the sensitivity to the phonological or sound structure of words. It includes phonemic awareness, but also encompasses many earlier developing skills such as the awareness of syllables or rhyme.

许多父母和老师知道phonics教学，但是phonemic awareness音素意识的训练是一个更新的理念。没有音素意识，学习phonics会更难，换句话说，音素意识应该先于教phonics---至少在phonics教学次序的初期—那么孩子从phonics训练中得到最大化的益处，有些phonics课程包括了音素训练内容，有些没有，所以理解它们之间的区别是很重要的。 这对于区分音素意识和另一个相关的术语—phonological awareness（音韵觉识）也是有用的。Phonological awareness实际上是一个更广的概念，phonemic awareness音素意识是这个大概念的一个部分，Phonological awareness是指对单词的音韵或单词中音的结构的一种感知，它不仅包括音素意识，还包含了很多更早期发展的技能，比如音节意识、押韵意识。

Awareness of syllables within words is an important aspect of phonological awareness.A child who has mastered this aspect of phonology will be able to perform tasks such as dividing the pronunciation of names into syllables: Bob--by; Tom--my; Gwen-do-lyn; Shei-la; Ma-ri-o; or to blend these syllables back into proper pronunciations of the names. Rhyming ability is another aspect of phonological awareness ,and it includes the ability to recognize that words rhyme, to identify which words rhyme, and to provide rhymes.

对单词中的音节意识是phonological awareness的一个重要方面，有了这个意识的孩子可以完成将名字分音节的任务，如Bob--by; Tom--my; Gwen-do-lyn; Shei-la; Ma-ri-o;或是将音节拼回到名字的正常发音。 Rhyming ability 押韵能力是phonological awareness的又一个方面，它包括认出押韵词、辨别押韵词、给出押韵词的能力。

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Developmental Sequence 发育顺序


Scientists have not yet arrived at a clear description of the sequence of how phonological awareness---including phonemic awareness---develops in young children (Torgesen & Mathes,2000),though some things are known about this development. For example,it is evident that these phonological skills are part of normal oral language development and that these skills would unfold to a great extent for most children even in the context of nonalphabetic languages such as Chinese (Hu & Catts,1998) or even if written language and reading had never developed in human history.

关于孩子的 phonological awareness音韵觉识—包括音素意识—是怎样的一个发育顺序，   科学家还没有一个清晰的描述，然而有些东西是已知的。例如：显而易见地，这些语音技能是正常的口头语言发展的一部分，对大多数孩子来说，这些技能将能很大程度地显露出来，甚至在诸如中文这种非字母性语言的情况下，或即使书面语言或阅读从未在人类历史上发展形成的情况下。



It also is clear that the more global aspects of phonological awareness,such as syllable awareness,appear earlier in childhood than the more demanding skills of phonemic awareness (Lonigan,Burgess,Anthony,& Barker,1998).This means that kindergartners may profit from some early attention--prior to the teaching of phonemic awareness---to rhyming and syllable awareness if these abilities are not yet in place.

也很清楚的是，在童年期，更全方位的音韵觉识，比如音节意识，比要求更高技能的音素意识要早出现。这意味幼儿园孩子可以得益于对押韵和音节的早期关注—先于教音素意识--如果他们的押韵和音节认知能力还没到位的话。

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Another fact about development that is important to know is that very few 3- and 4-year-olds have much phonemic awareness, but most--though not all--8-year-olds do (Bryant,MacLean,Bradley,& Crossland,1990).This means this aspect of language develops during the same years when children are trying to learn to read.The importance of phonemic awareness in reading has been shown in studies that have revealed the close connection between phonemic awareness and reading achievement (Torgesen & Mathes, 2000): Young children with well-developed phonemic awareness skills tend to be successful readers, while children without these skills usually are not.

关于语言发育的另一个事实是，极少数3-4岁的孩子具有很强的音素意识，知道这个事实很重要，但是大多数—虽然不是全部—8岁的孩子有很强的音素意识。 这意味着在孩子们尝试学习阅读的这几年里，音素意识这个方面的能力得到了发展。研究中显示，在阅读中音素意识的重要性已经揭示了音素意识和阅读成绩之间的紧密联系。具有发育良好的音素意识技能的孩子趋于成为成功的阅读者，而没有这些技能的孩子通常不能。

This raises the question,can phonemic awareness be taught? Can instruction accelerate the pace of this part of language development so that children can learn to read more easily? That,in fact,was the question the National Reading Panel attempted to answer.

这提出了一个问题，音素意识能教吗？音素意识训练能加速这方面能力的发育，以使孩子可以更容易地学会阅读吗？ 事实上，那正是国家阅读专家组试图回答的问题。

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Does Phonemic Awareness Instruction Improve Reading? 音素意识训练会增进阅读能力吗？


The National Reading Panel examined 52 studies on the teaching of phonemicawareness in which researchers taught children to hear the separate sounds withinwords (NICHD,2000).These studies clearly showed that phonemic awareness instruction could improve children’s phonemic awareness.Moreover,phonemic awareness teaching was advantageous to children in the early stages of learning to read; such instruction led to higher achievement in early reading and spelling,and the impacts on reading were evident when measuring both word recognition and reading comprehension.

国家阅读专家组仔细考察了52份关于音素意识教学的研究，在这些音素意识教学中，研究人员教孩子听到单词中的每一个单独音。研究结果非常清楚地显示，音素意识训练能够增进孩子的音素意识。而且，音素意识教学有利于孩子早期阶段的阅读学习。这样的训练可以使早期阅读和拼写达到更好的成绩，在考量单词认读和阅读理解时，音素意识教学对阅读的影响也是非常明显的。



The 52 studies examined by the panel considered the impact of phonemic awareness instruction on three types of learners: young children who were at risk of failure,young children who were progressing normally, and children who were older and learning-disabled. Instruction led to higher phonemic awareness for all three groups,but the younger children benefited most.It appears that phonemic awareness is best taught in kindergarten and first grade.Although both normally progressing and at-risk children learned phonemic awareness from this teaching,the improvement was greater in the reading skills of the at-risk children.

专家小组考察的52份研究分三种类型的学习者来考虑音素意识教学的影响：有失败风险的小孩子、正常进度的小孩子、年龄更大些的孩子和有学习障碍的孩子。训练使三组孩子的音素意识都得到提升，但年龄更小些的孩子获益最多。看来，音素意识在幼儿园和一年级被教得最好。虽然正常进度孩子和有失败风险的小孩子都从教学中学会了音素意识，但是有失败风险的小孩子的阅读技能进步更大。

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How Much Phonemic Awareness Instruction Do Children Need?
孩子需要多少音素意识训练



Phonemic awareness studies examined by the panel included instruction as brief as one hour and as extensive as 75 hours.The optimum amount of instruction across these studies---that is,the amount of instruction that was associated with the greatest reading gains---was between five and 8 hours. Nevertheless,the panel was careful not to conclude that a specific amount of phonemic awareness instruction is best, and it recognized that the amount should be based on individual need.

专家组考察的音素意识训练包括了简短短如一小时的和大量如75小时的。在这些研究中最适宜的训练时间---即训练量与阅读的最大获益相关—是在5小时到18小时之间。不过，专家组很谨慎，没给出到底多少特定训练量是最好的的结论，认为训练量应该根据个人的需要。


From these data,it would seem wise to ensure that 14--18 hours of phonemic awareness teaching be provided to young children (approximately 15 minutes per day for a semester of kindergarten).However,some children will not require this much instruction, and some may need more.Consequently,it is important to be diagnostic,adjusting the amount of teaching to meet the needs of the individual child.

从这些资料得出，确保给孩子14—18小时的音素意识训练（幼儿园一学期每天最多15分钟）是明智的。然而，有些孩子需要这么多训练，有些也许需要更多。因此，进行诊断是重要的，以此来调整满足孩子个体所需的训练时间。

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What Kinds of Phonemic Awareness Instruction Are Best?

Studies of phonemic awareness worked with children who were organized in several different configurations: individual tutoring, small-group,and large-group instruction. Because many of the studies of older, struggling readers---the group that benefited least from this teaching---provided the instruction through tutoring, it is difficult to accurately estimate the effects of one-on-one teaching of phonemic awareness.

音素意识研究报告中的孩子被安排在三种不同的教学配置：个别辅导、小组教学、大组教学。因为很多对年龄大些的，有阅读困难者的（即在这种教学中获益最少的人群）研究提供了个别辅导的训练， 所以很难精确地估计一对一进行音素意识教学的效果。


In the studies of younger children,phonemic awareness teaching was delivered to whole classes or small groups,and the effectiveness of these variables can be compared.Small group teaching led to greater learning than was evident with large group teaching.This is not surprising as small-group instruction allows the teacher to receive more of the children’s attention,children can better see the teacher’s mouth as the words are being spoken--- an important perceptual cue to phonemic awareness (Massaro,1997),and the children have more opportunities to respond to and receive feedback from the teacher in the small-group setting.

在年纪较小孩子的研究报告中，音素意识教学是在整个课堂或小组中进行，这些变量的有效性可以比较。小组教学很明显比大组教学有更大的学习效果。这一点都不令人意外，因为小组教学可以让老师获得更多孩子的注意力，孩子看可以更好地看到老师说单词时的口型--- 一个重要的音素意识的感知性提示，在小组教学环境中， 孩子们有更多的机会可以作出反应和接收到老师的反馈。


Small groups,although more effective,require more teaching time.Even if a teacher had only 15 children in a class,groups of three would require five times the amount of instruction that a whole-class lesson would. For this reason,phonemic awareness should be taught using a combination of whole-class and small-group teaching.Lessons might be taught first to the whole class,with more intensive small-group follow-up for those who fail to progress adequately from the whole-class instruction alone.This approach reflects the research findings and balances the efficiencies of whole-class teaching with the learning needs of individual children. The studies showed that simple instruction was better than complex instruction. Again, this should not be surprising, since the test subjects were kindergarten and first-grade children. Instructional efforts that focused on one or two phonemic awareness skills had greater impacts on learning than those that addressed several skills simultaneously. Table 1 (see Appendix A,p.40) shows some of the skills that might be taught in a phonemic awareness program.

虽然小组教学更有效，但小组教学需要更多的教学时间。即使一个老师一个班只有15个孩子，分三个小组教学需要比整个班一起教学5倍的时间。由于这个原因，音素意识教学应该整班教学和小组教学相结合。首先可以整班上课，后续对那些只上整班课不能有足够进步的孩子进行小组加强。这种方法反映了研究结果，平衡了整班教学和孩子个别需要教学的效率。研究显示，简单训练比复杂训练要好。这个也不令人意外，因为测试对象是幼儿园和一年级的孩子。集中一个或两个音素认知技能的训练比那些同时处理多种技能的训练对学习有更大的影响力。

表1（附录A）列出了 在音素意识课程中可以教的一些技能。

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More Advice for Teachers on Teaching Phonemic Awareness


The phonemic awareness skills found to give the greatest reading advantage to kindergarten and first-grade children are segmenting and
blending. Instruction in phonemic awareness should continue until students can fully segment words (divide
single syllable words into all constituent sounds) with ease. At that point,students are ready to receive the most benefit from reading instruction.Usually children find
segmentation and blending (pronouncing the sounds together so that they form a word) to be the hardest and latest developing of the phonemic awareness skills.Teachers need to be sure that children are learning to hear the sounds in words well enough to support full segmentation as well as learning the blending skills to put words back together again.Once children have accomplished
these goals,there is little need for additional
phonemic awareness instruction.

给幼儿园和一年级孩子最大阅读优势的音素意识技能是分割和拼合。音素意识的训练应该一直持续到学生能熟练地分割单词发音（将单音节单词分割到所构成的音）。到这个阶段，孩子可以最受益于阅读训练。通常孩子找到音的分割和拼合（将声音一起发出以组成一个词）是音素意识技能中最难和最迟发育的。老师必须确保孩子学会听出单词中的每一个音，以能支持完整地将单词发音分割， 同时也学会拼音技能，将单词中的发音再拼合起来。 一旦孩子完成了这样的目标，就没有必要再进行额外的音素意识训练了。



The sounds at the beginnings of words are usually easier for children to perceive than those at the ends of words,and those in
the middle are even more difficult (Torgesen& Mathes,2000).It is important that the classroom be a quiet place when working on phonemic awareness so the children can hear the sounds clearly.They also should
be seated in a way that allows them to see
the teacher’s mouth as words are pronounced. It is helpful,at least at first,to stretch or exaggerate sounds so the children can hear them better (Murray,1998). “ Listen to the first sound:
/k/ /k/ /k/ cane .”
Stretching the vowels---and also having the children stretch them---can be a great way to highlight a
particular part of a word.Don’t say “bad” say “b aaaaaaaaaaa d” . After some time, children should need less of a cue to hear the medial /a/ as a separate sound.

孩子察觉到单词词头相同的音比在词尾相同的音更容易，察觉到那些在单词中间相同的音最难。在进行音素意识训练时，教室保持安静非常重要，以让孩子能够清楚地听到发音。也应该让他们坐在能够看见老师发音嘴型的位置上。拉伸或夸张发音以让孩子们能够更好地听到发音----至少在最开始这样做，对音素意识学习是有帮助的。“听第一个音/k/ cane” ,拉伸元音---也让孩子们拉伸它们---是突出单词中特别部分的好方法。 不要说”bad”, 而说“b aaaaaaaaaaa d”. 过段时间后，孩子们就会减少这种帮助听到中间/a/ 音的提示了。

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Focusing only on hearing the sounds can be too abstract for young children.The use of physical representations of sounds can help them understand this concept. For example,many teachers use objects or counters the children can move as they hear each sound.The studies reviewed by the National Reading Panel found that when letter cards were used as counters----giving children a type of combined phonemic awareness and phonics activity---the children progressed fastest.The panel concluded that the best learning results were obtained when letter instruction was combined with phonemic awareness instruction.

只集中在听音，对幼儿来说太抽象了。用实际表示法能帮助孩子理解这个概念。例如，很多老师使用物品或计数器，当孩子听每一个音的时候，可以移动那些物品或计数器。阅读专家小组审核的研究报告发现，当字母卡被用作计数器时----给孩子一种综合音素意识和phonics相结合的活动----孩子会进步最快。专家小组得出结论：当字母训练（letter instruction）和音素意识训练（phonemic awareness instruction）相结合的时候，会有最好的学习效果。


Phonemic awareness instruction should be motivational as well.This instruction should seem like play,and songs and games can easily be part of the phonemic awareness routines in the classroom (Adams,Foorman,Lundberg,& Beeler,1997).Having children clap when the words have the same sound or jump when they do not are methods of adding some joy to the proceedings; using the children’s own names for the exercises can help maintain interest too.

音素意识训练也需要激发。这种训练应该要看起来象是在玩，歌曲和游戏可以很容易地成为日常课堂音素训练的一部分。当单词中有相同音的时候，让孩子们拍手，或者不是相同音的时候，让孩子们跳，这些都是给训练过程增添乐趣的方法。 使用孩子们自己的名字作为练习，也可以帮助保持兴趣。